Social Mobility in Pre-Industrial China: Reconsidering the 'Ladder of Success' Hypothesis

Abstract

We test with data whether social mobility existed in late imperial China (1796-1905 AD) through its civil examination system. We find that measures of ability consistently predict the highest level of exam — jinshi — success, while direct measures of wealth do not. However, in addition to the significance of the father’s education, the official rank of one’s father and ancestors, which we use to proxy for family-specific tacit knowledge (or “cultural capital”), also strongly predicts actual exam performance. Thus, while unwittingly facilitated mobility, the civil examination system still transmitted hidden advantages among those possessed with endowments beyond that of human capital.

Keywords: Social Mobility; Civil Exam; Ability; Wealth; Tacit Knowledge (Cultural Capital); Human Capital; China

JEL Classification: I24; J62; N35